Chapter:
Bio-Inorganic Chemistry
-Plan
Ghimire
The branch
of chemistry which deals with
the study of inorganic
substance in the biological and biochemical systems in
terms of nutrition, structural support, enzymatic action, transport, defense,
therapeutic action,
toxicity, medicine and pharmacy, etc. is known as bioinorganic chemistry.
Macro and Micro Nutrients
Nutrients are chemical substances that are required for the
proper
functioning
of cells, tissues, and different organs in all living organisms. Our body
requires an adequate amount of nutrients which are mainly required for various
functions of the body, including growth, repair, and protection against
disease-causing microbes. Since our body cannot synthesize these nutrients on
its own, these need to be supplied through external sources such as food.
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibers, vitamins, and minerals are the major
nutrients required for the normal growth and development of our living
systems.
The term
macronutrient simply means that the nutrient is needed in large quantities for
normal growth and development. Macronutrients are the body’s source of calories or energy to fuel life processes.
The
nutrients which are present in large
amounts for our body are called macronutrients.
E.g., carbohydrates, protein, fat, fiber and water.
The
nutrients which are present in a small
amount in our body are called micronutrient. Vitamins and minerals
are examples of micronutrients.
|
|
Micronutrients |
Macronutrients |
|
|
Requirements |
Required in very minute quantities. |
Required in larger quantities. |
|
|
Examples |
Antioxidants, minerals,
and vitamins are examples
of macro-nutrients. |
Carbohydrates, proteins,
fibe, and fats are
examples of macro-nutrients. |
|
|
Sources |
Are found in fruits, vegetables, eggs,
fermented foods, green |
Are found abundantly in
cereals, fish, legumes, meat, nuts, oilseeds, |
|
|
|
leafy
vegetables, etc . |
potatoes,
yam, etc. |
|
|
Functions |
|
Prevent diseases. |
Provides
energy. |
|
Advantages |
|
Micro-nutrients
contribute to body growth
and disease prevention.
|
Provides energy required for
the metabolic system. |
|
Consequences Deficiency |
of |
Deficiency results in
Anemia, Goiter, Scurvy, etc. |
Deficiency results
in
Kwashiorkor, Marasmus, Malnutrition, etc. |
|
Consequences of Overconsumption |
Overconsumption of
Vitamins lead to liver and nerve damage. |
Overconsumption of
macro-nutrients result in
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,
obesity, etc. |
|
Classification of Minerals
(Elements)
|
Based on Properties |
Based on Requirements |
Based on Relative Concentrations |
|
Alkali & Alkaline earth metals: 4 elements: Na, K, Ca, & Mg. |
Macro-minerals: 13 elements: C, H, N, O, Na, K, Mg, Ca, S, P, Cl, Si, & Fe. |
Bulk
Metals: Na, K, Mg, & Ca |
|
Trance Metals: 10 elements:
Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo, Cr, W, V, & Ni. Non-Metals: 12 elements: H, C, O, N, F,
Cl, I, B, P, S, Se, & Si. |
Microminerals: 13 elements: V, Cr, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Mo, W, Se, F, I,
& B |
Trance metals: Zn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, V, etc. |
Minerals in Food
Minerals are inorganic nutrients found in foods that are
essential for growth and health and do not contain the element carbon.
|
Mineral |
Biological importance |
Sources |
Deficiency |
|
Sodium |
Needed
for proper fluid balance (regulate osmotic
pressure of
body fluids), For generation of nerve impulses and muscle
contraction.
|
Table salt (sodium chloride);Large amounts in processed foods,Small amounts inmilk, breads, vegetables, and unprocessed |
Improper functioning of
nerves
and muscles, Nausea, cramps, vomiting, dizziness,
possible respiratory failure.
|
|
(Na) |
Importance
of Metal ions in Biological Systems
Functions of
Sodium (Na)
•
It helps in maintaining the blood volume and blood
pressure.
•
It is needed for the transport of sugars and amino acid
into the cells.
•
It maintains the osmotic pressure of our body.
•
It regulates the flow of water across all
membranes.
Functions of
Potassium (K)
•
It regulates opening and closing of stomata and maintain
turgor
pressure in plant.
•
It helps in muscle contraction, heartbeat and nerve
impulse.
•
It helps in regulating fluid balance in the body.
•
It is important for the synthesis of ribosomes.
•
It helps in the waste removal process.
Functions of
Magnesium (Mg)
•
It is present in chlorophyll and helps in
photosynthesis.
· It helps in
adjusting the proper sugar level.
· It helps in
the production of energy.
•
It helps in the synthesis and functioning of DNA.
Functions of
Calcium (Ca)
•
It is essential for building strong teeth and
bones.
•
It helps in the regulation of heartbeat and blood
clotting.
•
It is an important constituent of the cell wall.
•
It plays an important role in muscle contraction.
Functions of Iron (Fe)
•
It helps in oxygen carrier in the blood of mammals,
birds and fishes.
•
Haemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, helps to carry
oxygen from
lungs to tissue.
•
Myoglobin, another iron-containing protein, is used for
the storage of
oxygen.
•
It helps in the production of enzymes and
hormones.
Functions of
Copper (Cu)
•
It is used as metalloenzymes which catalyze the various
biochemical
reaction.
It helps in electron transfer and oxygen storage.
It helps in the formation of
melanin pigment in the skin and for
healthy hair.
•
It helps in the synthesis of phospholipids.
Functions of
Zinc (Zn)
•
It is needed for the proper growth of infants.
•
It helps in the regulation of gene.
•
It helps in cell division and cell growth.
•
It helps in wound healing.
Functions of
Chromium (Cr)
•
It is necessary for the breakdown of carbohydrate and
fat.
•
It helps to stimulate fatty acid synthesis.
•
It is involved in the production of red blood
cells.
•
It helps in cholesterol synthesis.
Functions of
Cobalt (Co)
•
It is an integral part of cobalamin (vitamin B12) which
functions the
brain and nervous system.
•
It helps in the formation of red blood cells.
It helps to stimulate the
production of thyroxine, a thyroid hormone.
It helps in fatty acid and amino acid metabolism.
Functions of
Nickel (Ni)
•
It helps in electron transfer.
•
It is mostly found in nucleic acid.
•
It helps to improve bones strength.
•
It helps in metabolizing urea and in nitrogen
fixation.
Ion Pump
▪ The proteins
that transport ions across a biological
membrane from a region of low
concentration to higher
concentration are called ion
pumps.
▪ The proteins
that transport ions require energy.
▪ These
transporters can be primary transporters
that transport ions (Na+,
K+, Ca2+) using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a
source of energy and secondary
transporters that transports ions using
potential energy
created by the primary transporters.
▪ The sodium-potassium pump is an example of primary active transport protein and
the sodium-glucose pump is an
example of
secondary
active transport protein.
Sodium
Potassium Pump
Also known as the Na+/K+
pump or Na+/K+-ATPase, this is a protein pump found
in the cell membrane of neurons (and other animal cells).
It acts to transport sodium and potassium ions across
the cell membrane in a ratio of 3 sodium
ions out for every 2 potassium ions
brought in.
The energy required for the transport is obtained by
the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
to adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
Steps
❖ 3 sodium
ions inside the cell bind to the pump.
❖ A phosphate
from ATP is donated to the pump (energy used).
❖ The pump
changes shape and releases sodium ions outside of the
cell.
❖ 2 potassium
ions bind to the pump and are transferred into the cell.
❖ A phosphate
group is released and the pump returns to its original shape.
In the process, the pump helps to stabilize membrane potential, and thus is essential in creating the
conditions necessary for the firing of action potentials.
It participates in the transmission
of nerve signals.
Sodium-Glucose
Pump
This is an example of secondary active transport which allows glucose to enter into
cells. These pumps (Sodium-glucose cotransporter; SGLT) are active in
intestinal and kidney cells. In both the cells, glucose moves from low
concentration to high concentration. Here energy required for this transport comes
from sodium ion which is created by the sodiumpotassium pump.
SGLT activity mediates apical sodium and glucose
transport across cell membranes.
It helps in the transport of glucose.
Metal
Toxicity
The toxic
effects of metals in their certain
forms and certain doses on the life of
organisms are called metal toxicity
or metal poisoning.
The toxic effects of some metals are given below:
Toxicity due
to Iron (Fe)
•
Excess iron in the body may catalyze some reactions
causing the formation of free radicals that can damage biomolecules, cells, and
tissue.
•
Excess iron can cause the corrosion of the lining of
the
gastrointestinal tract that
causes stomach pain and also damages the
liver and brain.
Toxicity due
to Arsenic (As)
•
The simple symptoms of arsenic poisoning are headache,
diarrhea,
and drowsiness.
•
Excessive poisoning causes malfunctions like vomiting
of blood, loss of blood in urine, cramping muscles, hair loss, and stomach
pain.
•
Its poisoning may cause cancer of the lungs, skin,
kidney, and liver. It
may even cause coma or death.
Toxicity due
to Mercury (Hg)
•
Mercury poisoning causes memory loss, emotional
instability, and insomnia. During 1950, mercury poisoning killed more than 600
people in Minamata, Japan that took place due to the industrial
discharge of mercury into the river. This is called Minamata disease.
•
Mercury mainly attacks the brain, kidneys, and
muscles.
Toxicity due
to Lead (Pb)
•
Lead poisoning causes the formation of reactive oxygen
species
which results in health problems related to stress, a
decrease in the
number of antioxidants, cell damage, and damage of
protein.
•
It also causes a headache, loss of appetite,
hypertension, abdominal
pain, dizziness, and arthritis.
Toxicity due
to Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium gets bound with some proteins and amino acids
that cause deficiency of iron. It can cause several bone problems. Compounds of
cadmium are carcinogenic.
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